Jackson and Keys (1984, Towards a system of systems methodologies, J. Opl. Res. Soc. 35:473.) sought to provide a "system of systems methodologies" - an alternative framework that would serve a similar purpose to Burrell and Morgan's grid in organizational analysis (1979, Sociological Paradigms and Organizational Analysis. Heinemann, London.) but would be more suited to the language, concerns and internal development of the management and systems science. It was designed to related different systems methodologies to each other on the basis of the assumptions they made about the nature of problem situations or "problem-contexts." In fulfilling this role the system of systems methodologies (SOSM) had an important impact on the establishment of pluralism as an element in critical systems thinking. In order to understand this we need to consider the two axes upon which the SOSM is constructed (see Figure 5.2)
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| Figure 5.2 Progress in applied systems thinking understood through the SOSM |
The horizontal axis establishes a continuum of increasing divergence of values and/or interests between those concerned with, or affected by, a problem situation. The terms unitary, pluralist, and conflictual are taken from the industrial literature to reflect this. So "participants" or "stakeholders" can exist in a unitary relationship to one another when they are in genuine agreement about their objectives, sharing values and interests.
The vertical axis details increasing complexity on a continuum from simple to complex. It can best be understood by considering what makes problem-situations simple and complex.
Either social or technical characteristics may predominate in particular organizations, or parts or levels of organizations, but their successful development would seem to depend upon sufficient attention being given to both. Habermas's sociological theory, as we saw in chapter 3, the socio-cultural form of life of the human species is underpinned by "work" and "interaction." The importance of work leads humans to have a "technical interset" in achieving mastery over our natural and social environment. The importance of interaction leads humans to have a "practical interest" in expanding the possibilities of mutual understanding among all those involved in the reproduction of social life.
The understanding of "power" and the cultivation of an "emancipatory interest" is also essential to ensure the open and free discussion necessary for the success of interaction.
Management science had its origins in Taylor's "scientific management", formulated before the First World War. It was during the Second World War that the approach known as "operational research" (OR) cane into its own. It proved successful in helping the allied war effort in a variety of ways. Not long after the war the methodologies known as systems analysis and systems engineering also became established and, along with OR, were employed to assist reindustrialization generally in Europe, the USA and beyond following the war, and the military specifically in the build up to the "cold war."
We have been tracing the development of applied systems thinking using the two dimensions which frame the chart in Figure 5.2; their concerns being with increasing complexity and increasing divergence of values and/or interests. We have seen that the two axes reflect Habermas's "technical" interest, on the one hand, and his "practical" and "emancipatory" interests ont the other.
Using Pepper's idea of "root metaphors", progress along the simple-complex continuum can be understood as a shift from mechanism toward a much greater interest in organicism and formism.
Employing Morgan's "images of organization", it is easy to detect progress along the simple-complex dimension as being based on the successive exploration of the machine (Or, systems analysis, systems engineering), organism and brain (socio-technical systems theory, living systems theory, organizational cybernetics), and flux and transformation (complex theory) metaphors.
Progress along the values/interests dimension equates to the successive privileging of the culture, political, psychic prison, and instruments of domination metaphors.
In the case of the simple-complex continuum it was an epistemological shift from positivism to structuralism which permitted a breakthrough to be achieved. With the values/interests dimension a break with both the ontology and epistemology of functionalism was required.
The understanding of "power" and the cultivation of an "emancipatory interest" is also essential to ensure the open and free discussion necessary for the success of interaction.
Management science had its origins in Taylor's "scientific management", formulated before the First World War. It was during the Second World War that the approach known as "operational research" (OR) cane into its own. It proved successful in helping the allied war effort in a variety of ways. Not long after the war the methodologies known as systems analysis and systems engineering also became established and, along with OR, were employed to assist reindustrialization generally in Europe, the USA and beyond following the war, and the military specifically in the build up to the "cold war."
We have been tracing the development of applied systems thinking using the two dimensions which frame the chart in Figure 5.2; their concerns being with increasing complexity and increasing divergence of values and/or interests. We have seen that the two axes reflect Habermas's "technical" interest, on the one hand, and his "practical" and "emancipatory" interests ont the other.
Using Pepper's idea of "root metaphors", progress along the simple-complex continuum can be understood as a shift from mechanism toward a much greater interest in organicism and formism.
Employing Morgan's "images of organization", it is easy to detect progress along the simple-complex dimension as being based on the successive exploration of the machine (Or, systems analysis, systems engineering), organism and brain (socio-technical systems theory, living systems theory, organizational cybernetics), and flux and transformation (complex theory) metaphors.
Progress along the values/interests dimension equates to the successive privileging of the culture, political, psychic prison, and instruments of domination metaphors.
In the case of the simple-complex continuum it was an epistemological shift from positivism to structuralism which permitted a breakthrough to be achieved. With the values/interests dimension a break with both the ontology and epistemology of functionalism was required.
(Jackson, 2000, Systems Approaches to Management, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. NY. P94~99)
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