SATM 2.2 Methodology, Methods, and Meta-Methodology

Methodology concerns itself with the study of the principles of method use, in the sense that it sets out to describe and question the methods that might be employed in some activity. Methodology is, therefore, a higher-order term than methods and indeed, than procedures, models, tools, and techniques, the use of all of which can be facilitated, organized and reflected upon in methodology.

SATM 1.2 The Systems Tradition

The systems approach, or holistic thinking, has a very long history. It was no until the late 1940s and early 1950s, however, with the publication of Wiener's work on cybernetics (1948) and von Bertalanffy's on "general system theory" (1950,1968), that it bagan to take on the form of a discipline. The approach was popular and immediately successful, and system thinking from the 1950s to the 1970s was far and away the most important influence on the management sciences and a number of other fields.

SATM 4.9 Chaos and Complexity Theory

Chaos and complexity theory is able to lay claim the science of the global nature of systems (Gleick, 1987, Chaos: the Making of a New Science. Abacus, London.), relevant as it appears to be disciplines as diverse as meteorology, chemistry, geology, evolutionary biology, economics and management.

SATM 4.8 The Physical Sciences and Toward Synthesis

Frijof Capra (1975, The Tao of Physics, Shambhala, Boston) has been developing is that in all of the disciplines of the natural sciences - physics, chemistry, biology - it has been necessary for scientists to abandon the mechanistic and deterministic assumptions underlying the Newtonian world view. In order to understand the nature of reality they have had to forge a new perspective which recognizes relationships and indeterminacy; in short. a perspective that is much more systemic in character.

SATM 4.7.3 Variety Engineering

Managers are unable to make accurate predictions either about the organizations they manage or the environments within which those organizations are situated. Ashby (1956, An Introduction to Cybernetics, Methuen, London.) takes the credit because of his invention of the key concept of variety. The variety of a system is defined here as the number of possible stated it is capable of exhibiting. Obviously, variety is a subjective concept depending on the observer.

SATM 4.7.2 Negative Feedback

Exceedingly complex probabilistic systems have to be controlled through self-regulation. The understanding of self-regulation that cybernetics can provide is important to managers for two reasons. First, it is the existence of mechanisms bring about self-regulation that gives a degree of stability to the environment of organizations. Second, if managers understand the nature of self-regulation they may be able to induce it in the organizations they manage.

SATM 4.7.1 The Black Box Technique

According to Schoderbek et al. (1985, Management Systems: Conceptual Considerations, 3rd ed., Business Publication, Dallas.), the complexity of a system is the combined of the interaction of four main determinants:

• The number of elements comprising of system
• The interactions among these elements
• The attributes of the specified elements of the system
• The degree of organization in the system (i.e., whether there are predetermined rules guiding the interactions or specifying the attributes)

It is extremely important to consider the last two of these factors in judging complexity.

SATM 4.7 Control Engineering and Cybernetics

The Greek word kybernetes, meaning the art of steersmanship, was employed by Plato to refer both to the piloting of a vessel and to the steering of the "ship of state." From the Greek kybernetes came the Latin gubernator, and hence the English governor.

SATM 4.6 Management and Organization Theory

From the 1930s onward, three different models of management competed for precedence in organization theory: the traditional approach, human relations theory and systems thinking (Kast and Rosenzweig, 1981, Organization and Management: A Systems and Contingency Approach, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, NY). The traditional approach was based upon Taylor's scientific management, Fayol's administrative management theory and Weber's bureaucracy theory, and encouraged the view that organizations were like machine. Human relations theorists such as Mayo, Maslow, Herzberg, and McGregor studied and drew conclusions about issues such as group behavior, individual motivation, and leadership. That easily lead to the neglect of factors such as the market, technology, competition and organizational structure. Systems thinkers argued that organizations should be seen as whole systems made up of interrelated parts.

SATM 4.5 Sociology - Origins in the Systems Disciplines

It can be found in the work of Pareto, and his followers, in the belief that society is a system. Durkheim, Spencer and many others favored the organismic analogy: society was viewed as a system made up of interconnected parts functioning to maintain the whole. Aron is referring to Pareto's formulation of a general mechanism which underpins the movement of society. Four variables, called "interest", "residues", "derivations" and "social heterogeneity", are seen as being in a state of mutual dependence.

<系統思考實踐篇>

系統思考就是從整體上對影響系統行為的各種力量與相互關係進行思考，以培養人們對複雜性、相互依存關係、變化及影響力的理解與決策能力。系統思考有別於傳統思維模式, 具備下列四項特徵:

1. 看到全貌而非局部。整體思考是系統思考最根本的特性。了解一個系統，預測並影響、控制其行為，必須將系統做為一個整體來看待。
2. 看透結構而非表象。獨特的洞察力，來自看清潛藏在事件或趨勢背後的結構。結構(""所以然"")決定了事物的發展變化(""其然"")。
3. 看到變化而非靜止。借助系統動力學軟體建模與模擬技術，可以看清事物發展變化的動態， 提前預見系統可能的變化或結果。
4. 看清條理而非雜亂。邏輯嚴謹，條理清晰地思考，並運用共同的語言進行溝通和交流，避免雜亂無章或掛一漏萬。

SATM 4.4 General System Theory - Origins in the Systems Diciplines

In 1954 Von Bertalanffy (a biologist) gave institutional embodiment to his ambition by setting up, with Boulding (an economist), Gerard (a physiologist) and Rapoport (a mathematician), the Society for General System Research. This had four aims:

• To investigate the isomorphy of concepts, laws, and models in various fields, and to help in useful transfers from one field to another.
• To encourage the development of adequate theoretical model in field which lack them
• To eliminate the duplication of theoretical efforts in different fields
• To promote the unity of science through improving the communication between specialists

SATM 4.3 Biology - Origins in the Systems Diciplines

Biology has provided equally fertile ground for the development of systems concepts; contributing, amongst others, "complexity", "emergence", "hierarchy", "equilibrium", "adaptation", "homoeostasis", "self-regulation", "open-system", "environment", "autopoiesis" and "autonomy."

SATM 4.2 Philosophy - Origins in the Systems Disciplines

Aristotle employs systems thinking to elucidate the nature of body and soul and the relationship between individuals and State (Russell, B., 1961, History of Western Philosophy, George Allen and Unwin, London.). Just as a hand can only fulfill its purpose, of grasping, when joined to a body, so an individual must be a part of a State in order to fulfill his purpose. In Aristotle's philosophy the whole is clearly prior the parts and the parts only obtain their meaning in terms of the purpose of the whole - they are not separable.

SATM 1.1 Why Systems Thinking?

In the nature sciences it is often possible to test hypotheses by carrying out experiments in the laboratory into cause and effect among a limited number of elements, this proves extremely difficult with real-world problems. The significant factors involved do not easily identify themselves and the problem situation itself can seem to have no boundary. Another difficulty is that repeatable experiments are hard to carry out on real world problems when initial conditions are impossible to replicate. (Jackson, M.C., 2000, Systems Approaches to Management, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, NY. P44)