SATM 4.6 Management and Organization Theory

From the 1930s onward, three different models of management competed for precedence in organization theory: the traditional approach, human relations theory and systems thinking (Kast and Rosenzweig, 1981, Organization and Management: A Systems and Contingency Approach, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, NY). The traditional approach was based upon Taylor's scientific management, Fayol's administrative management theory and Weber's bureaucracy theory, and encouraged the view that organizations were like machine. Human relations theorists such as Mayo, Maslow, Herzberg, and McGregor studied and drew conclusions about issues such as group behavior, individual motivation, and leadership. That easily lead to the neglect of factors such as the market, technology, competition and organizational structure. Systems thinkers argued that organizations should be seen as whole systems made up of interrelated parts.

SATM 4.5 Sociology - Origins in the Systems Disciplines

It can be found in the work of Pareto, and his followers, in the belief that society is a system. Durkheim, Spencer and many others favored the organismic analogy: society was viewed as a system made up of interconnected parts functioning to maintain the whole. Aron is referring to Pareto's formulation of a general mechanism which underpins the movement of society. Four variables, called "interest", "residues", "derivations" and "social heterogeneity", are seen as being in a state of mutual dependence.

<系統思考實踐篇>

系統思考就是從整體上對影響系統行為的各種力量與相互關係進行思考，以培養人們對複雜性、相互依存關係、變化及影響力的理解與決策能力。系統思考有別於傳統思維模式, 具備下列四項特徵:

1. 看到全貌而非局部。整體思考是系統思考最根本的特性。了解一個系統，預測並影響、控制其行為，必須將系統做為一個整體來看待。
2. 看透結構而非表象。獨特的洞察力，來自看清潛藏在事件或趨勢背後的結構。結構(""所以然"")決定了事物的發展變化(""其然"")。
3. 看到變化而非靜止。借助系統動力學軟體建模與模擬技術，可以看清事物發展變化的動態， 提前預見系統可能的變化或結果。
4. 看清條理而非雜亂。邏輯嚴謹，條理清晰地思考，並運用共同的語言進行溝通和交流，避免雜亂無章或掛一漏萬。

SATM 4.4 General System Theory - Origins in the Systems Diciplines

In 1954 Von Bertalanffy (a biologist) gave institutional embodiment to his ambition by setting up, with Boulding (an economist), Gerard (a physiologist) and Rapoport (a mathematician), the Society for General System Research. This had four aims:

• To investigate the isomorphy of concepts, laws, and models in various fields, and to help in useful transfers from one field to another.
• To encourage the development of adequate theoretical model in field which lack them
• To eliminate the duplication of theoretical efforts in different fields
• To promote the unity of science through improving the communication between specialists

SATM 4.3 Biology - Origins in the Systems Diciplines

Biology has provided equally fertile ground for the development of systems concepts; contributing, amongst others, "complexity", "emergence", "hierarchy", "equilibrium", "adaptation", "homoeostasis", "self-regulation", "open-system", "environment", "autopoiesis" and "autonomy."

SATM 4.2 Philosophy - Origins in the Systems Disciplines

Aristotle employs systems thinking to elucidate the nature of body and soul and the relationship between individuals and State (Russell, B., 1961, History of Western Philosophy, George Allen and Unwin, London.). Just as a hand can only fulfill its purpose, of grasping, when joined to a body, so an individual must be a part of a State in order to fulfill his purpose. In Aristotle's philosophy the whole is clearly prior the parts and the parts only obtain their meaning in terms of the purpose of the whole - they are not separable.

SATM 1.1 Why Systems Thinking?

In the nature sciences it is often possible to test hypotheses by carrying out experiments in the laboratory into cause and effect among a limited number of elements, this proves extremely difficult with real-world problems. The significant factors involved do not easily identify themselves and the problem situation itself can seem to have no boundary. Another difficulty is that repeatable experiments are hard to carry out on real world problems when initial conditions are impossible to replicate. (Jackson, M.C., 2000, Systems Approaches to Management, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, NY. P44)